On the behavioral level we expected that the pattern of

On the behavioral level we expected that the pattern of aggression after positive, neutral, and negative feedback would be similar across the pilot, test and replication samples, with negative feedback resulting in the highest levels of aggressive behavior. On the neural level we examined both the general LDN193189 Hydrochloride of social evaluation (all feedback conditions vs. baseline; see Supplementary materials) and the condition-specific contrasts. To further investigate condition effects, that is the effect of negative vs. neutral vs. positive feedback, we used regions of interest (ROI) analyses. The individual ROI analyses were meta-analytically combined in order to test for robust condition effects across our samples. Based on studies in adults, the predictions were that negative social feedback would be associated with increased activity in the amygdala (Masten et al., 2009), bilateral insula, and mPFC/Anterior Cingulate Cortex’ gyrus ACCg (Somerville et al., 2006; Achterberg et al., 2016). While prior studies tested only adults and adolescents, this study tested for the first time if the same regions are engaged in children, including not only positive and negative social feedback but also a neutral social feedback baseline (see Achterberg et al., 2016), and examined the relations with subsequent aggression.
Materials and methods
Results
Discussion This study investigated the behavioral and neural correlates of social evaluation in middle childhood, using a new experimental paradigm: the Social Network Aggression Task (SNAT, Achterberg et al. (2016)). With the combination of a replication design and a meta-analytical approach we thoroughly tested this new experimental paradigm in 7-to-10-year-old children. Overall, we found consistent findings over the pilot, test and replication samples for behavioral aggression following negative social feedback, showing significantly more aggression after negative social feedback compared to positive or neutral social feedback The neural effects indicated increased activity in the amygdala, insula and mPFC/ACCg after negative feedback, but these effects were only significant in part of the samples and in the meta-analyses. The specific social evaluation effects and methodological considerations for future research are described in more detail below.
Limitations In addition to the methodological considerations, some limitation regarding the social evaluation paradigm used in this study need to be acknowledged. First, although the noise blast is often used as a measure of aggression, our cover story explicitly stated that the peers would not hear the noise blast. That is to say, the aggression measure reflects hypothetical aggression or frustration. This decision was based on previous studies using a similar design (Konijn et al., 2007), but future studies may separate real aggression from hypothetical aggression to test the neural differences in these two types of aggression. Secondly, our social evaluation paradigm included a neutral condition. However, our neutral feedback was not purely neutral, but more mixed (not specifically positive and not specifically negative). Nevertheless, the neutral condition was in between positive and negative feedback, therefore making this condition a solid baseline/comparison condition.
Conclusion
Conflict of interest
Acknowledgements The Leiden Consortium on Individual Development is funded through the Gravitation program of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number 024.001.003).
Introduction Neural representations of the body formed within the human brain, known as the body representation system (BRS), is central to the understanding of motor functions (Ehrsson et al., 2003; Longo and Haggard 2010). The BRS is constantly updated using sensory information, especially proprioception that encompasses the perception of positional changes and movements of body parts (Proske and Gandevia, 2012). Using vibration-evoked proprioceptive illusions, neuroimaging studies suggested that two networks constitute the cerebral basis of the BRS (Naito et al., 1999, 2002, 2016; Naito and Ehrsson, 2006): (i) a sensorimotor control network – i.e. motor and somatosensory cortical regions, basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum – that contributes to the formation of the body representations, and is involved in on-line control (fast corrections) of movement, and (ii) a fronto-parietal network extending from the inferior frontal gyrus to the posterior parietal cortex (e.g. inferior parietal lobule) that integrates environmental information together with bodily information into a single percept, thereby providing a corporeal representation adjusted to the environmental context. Furthermore, the fronto-parietal network in the right hemisphere has also been found to be involved in corporeal self-awareness (Cignetti et al., 2014; Naito et al., 2005). Although it is obvious that the BRS must be updated during development due to many factors such as morphological changes, acquisition of motor skills, and cognitive practice, age-related changes in its cerebral correlates have never been investigated directly.